social Darwinism Herbert Spencer's belief that those species of animals—including human beings—best adapted to the environment survive and prosper while those poorly adapted die out.
social change The alteration, modification, or transformation of public policy, culture, or social institutions over time.
self-concept The totality of our beliefs and feelings about ourselves.
secularization The process by which religious beliefs, practices, and institutions lose their significance in sectors of society and culture.
secondary sector production The sector of the economy that processes raw materials (from the primary sector) into finished goods.
secondary labour market The sector of the labour market that consists of low-paying jobs with few benefits and very little job security or possibility for future advancement.
search engine The tool used to locate information in an on-line computer database.
sanction A reward for appropriate behaviour or a penalty for inappropriate behaviour.
sample The people who are selected from the population to be studied.
rumour An unsubstantiated report on an issue or subject.
role-taking The process by which a person mentally assumes the role of another person in order to understand the world from that person's point of view.
role expectation A term used to describe a group's or society's definition of the way a specific role ought to be played.
role A set of behavioural expectations associated with a given status.
ritual A symbolic action that represents religious meanings.
respondent A person who provides data for analysis through an interview or questionnaire.
resolution Clarity of the picture on the screen.
research method A strategy or technique for systematically conducting research.
representative sample A selection from a larger population that has the essential characteristics of the total population.
religion A system of beliefs, symbols, and rituals, based on some sacred or supernatural realm, that guides human behaviour, gives meaning to life, and unites believers into a community.
reliability In sociological research, the extent to which a study or research instrument yields consistent results.
relative poverty A level of economic deprivation in which people may be able to afford basic necessities but still are unable to maintain an average standard of living.
reference group A term used to describe a group that strongly influences a person's behaviour and social attitudes, regardless of whether that individual is an actual member.
random sample A selection in which everyone in the target population has an equal chance of being chosen; in other words, choice occurs by chance.
racism An organized set of beliefs about the innate inferiority of some racial groups, combined with the power to transform these ideas into practices that can deny or exclude equality of treatment on the basis of race.
race A category of people who have been singled out as inferior or superior, often on the basis of physical characteristics such as skin colour, hair texture, and eye shape.
selective perception The concept that people perceive messages differently.
sender (or source) The agency that puts a message on a channel (for example, a local cable company).
server A computerized storage system used to send programs and data to consumers, using cable, phone lines, or other networks.
sexual orientation A person's preference for emotional–sexual relationships with members of the opposite sex (heterosexuality), the same sex (homosexuality), or both sexes (bisexuality).
situation comedy A television program that establishes a fixed set of characters in either a home or work situation.
social change The alteration, modification, or transformation of public policy, culture, or social institutions over time.
social control Systematic practices developed by social groups to encourage conformity and to discourage deviance.
social devaluation A situation in which a person or group is considered to have less social value than other individuals or groups.
social disorganization According to functionalist theorists, conditions that undermine the ability of traditional institutions (such as family, church, or school) to govern social behaviour.
social distance A term used to describe the extent to which people are willing to interact and establish relationships with members of racial and ethnic groups other than their own.
social group A group that consists of two or more people who interact frequently and share a common identity and a feeling of interdependence.
social institution A set of organized beliefs and rules that establish how a society will attempt to meet its basic social needs.
social interaction The process by which people act toward or respond to other people.
social movement An organized group that acts consciously to promote or resist change through collective action.
social network A series of social relationships that link an individual to others.
social structure The stable pattern of social relationships that exist within a particular group or society.
socialism An economic system characterized by public ownership of the means of production, the pursuit of collective goals, and centralized decision making.
socialization The lifelong process of social interaction through which individuals acquire a self-identity and the physical, mental, and social skills needed for survival in society.
societal consensus A situation whereby the majority of members share a common set of values, beliefs, and behavioural expectations.
society A large social grouping that shares the same geographical territory and is subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations.
sociobiology The systematic study of how biology affects social behaviour.
socioeconomic status (SES) A combined measure that attempts to classify individuals, families, or households in terms of indicators such as income, occupation, and education.
sociological imagination C. Wright Mills's term for the ability to see the relationship between individual experiences and the larger society.
sociology The systematic study of human society and social interactions.
special interest groups Political coalitions comprised of individuals or groups that share a specific interest that they wish to protect or advance with the help of the political system.
split labour market A term used to describe the division of the economy into two areas of employment: a primary sector or upper tier, composed of higher-paid (usually dominant group) workers in more secure jobs; and a secondary sector or lower tier, comprised of lower-paid (often subordinate group) workers in jobs with little security and hazardous working conditions.
split-run editions Magazines that are published in several countries with the same editorial content, but with local advertisements.
state The political entity that possesses a legitimate monopoly over the use of force within its territory to achieve its goals.
status A socially defined position in a group or society characterized by certain expectations, rights, and duties.
status symbol A material sign that informs others of a person's specific status.
stigma According to Erving Goffman, any physical or social attribute or sign that so devalues a person's social identity that it disqualifies that person from full social acceptance.
subcontracting A form of economic organization in which a larger corporation contracts with other (usually smaller) firms to provide specialized components, products, or services to the larger corporation.
succession The process by which a new category of people or type of land use gradually predominates in an area formerly dominated by another group or activity.
survey A research method in which a questionnaire or interview is used by researchers to gather facts or determine the relationship between facts.
systemic racism A term used to describe practices that have a harmful impact on subordinate group members even though the organizationally prescribed norms or regulations guiding these actions initially were established with no intent to harm.
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